These are the rules concerning transliteration in Ancient Greek entries.
This page is an extension of Wiktionary:About Ancient Greek. See also Category:Ancient Greek IPA templates. There is also a page Modern Greek romanization.
The prescribed Romanization is the scientific transliteration; note that digraphs only affect pronunciation, not Romanization.
The prescribed pronunciation systems here reflect the main prestige dialects during the three ancient Greek development periods.
Letter | Rom. | Class. IPA | Koine IPA | Byzan. IPA | Cont. IPA | before ? ? ? ? ? | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
? ? | A ? a ? | [a], [a:] | [a], [a:] | [a] | [a] | In Classical polytonic, the length distinction of ? ([a]) and ? ([a:]) is not usually indicated in writing or transcription. However, if ? needs to be transcribed, ? suffices. | |
? ? | B b | [b] | [b] | [?] | [v] | ||
? ? | G g | [?] | [?] | [?] | [?] | [?] | |
? ? | D d | [d] | [d] | [ð] | [ð] | ||
? ? | E e | [e] | [?] | [e] | [e] | ||
? ? | W w | [w] | N\A | Not native to Attic-Ionic (lost in pre-classical times). If pronounced [w], Classical Attic kept it silent and Koine adapted it as . If pronounced [?~v], both Classical Attic and Koine adapted it as ?. | |||
? ? | Z z | [zd] | [z], [zz] | [z], [zz] | [z], [(z)z] | Was metrically considered an interchangeably single or double consonant in Koine (typically double between vowels). | |
? ? | ? ? | [?:] | [e:] | [i] | [i] | Finishes merging with ?/? in Byzantine. | |
? ? | Th th | [t?] | [t?] | [?] | [?] | ||
? ? ? | I ? i ? ï | [i], [i:] | [i], [i:] | [i] | [i] | In Classical polytonic, the length distinction of ? ([i]) and ? ([i:]) is not usually indicated in writing or transcription. However, if ? needs to be transcribed, ? suffices. | |
? ? | K k | [k] | [k] | [k] | [k] | [c] | |
? ? | L l | [l] | [l] | [l] | [l] | ||
? ? | M m | [m] | [m] | [m] | [m] | ||
? ? | N n | [n] | [n] | [n] | [n] | ||
? ? | Ks ks | [k?s] | [k?s] | [ks] | [ks] | See digraph exceptions further down. | |
? ? | O o | [o] | [o] | [o] | [o] | ||
? ? | P p | [p] | [p] | [p] | [p] | ||
? ? | Rh rh r | [hr], [r] | [(h)r], [r] | [r] | [?] | Normal ? is [r] and transcribed r. In Classical, ? is voiceless [r?] and transcribed rh, and or is voiceless [rr?] and transcribed rrh. Koine ? is [r?] or [r], and is [rr?] or [rr]. All are voiced [r] in Byzantine onward, except in Atticist writings. | |
? ? ? | S s | [s] | [s] | [s] | [s] | See digraph exceptions further down. | |
? ? | T t | [t] | [t] | [t] | [t] | See diagraph exceptions further down. | |
? ? ? | Hu H? hu h? u ? ü | [?], [?:] | [y], [y:] | [y] | [i] | In Classical polytonic, the length distinction of ? ([y]) and ? ([y:]) is not usually indicated in writing or transcription. However, if ? needs to be transcribed, ? suffices.
Originally a back vowel [u u:], the influential Attic dialect shifted it to front [y y:] early on. Merges with ? in 10th century Byzantine Greek, but merges with in the Old Athenian dialect until it becomes extinct in the 20th century. | |
? ? | Ph ph | [p?] | [p?] | [?] | [f] | ||
? ? | Kh kh | [k?] | [k?] | [x] | [x] | [ç] | |
? ? | Ps ps | [p?s] | [p?s] | [ps] | [ps] | See digraph exceptions further down. | |
? ? | ? ? | [?:] | [o:] | [o] | [o] | Merges with ? late in Koine. |
Spelling | Rom. | Class. IPA | Koine IPA | Byzan. IPA | Cont. IPA | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ai ai | [ai?] | [?:] | [e] | [e] | Merges with ? in late Koine among the Hellenists and in Alexandria, and treated as an allophone of it from then on. | |
? ? | ?i ?i | [a:i?] | [a:] | [a] | [a] | Classically spelt . In Koine, becomes collated simply as ? as they merge. |
Au ?u au ?u | [au?], [a:u?] | [aw], [a:w] | [av] | [av] | See // exceptions further down. | |
Ei ei | [e:] | [i:] | [i] | [i] | The Archaic Greek diphthong [ei?] was monophthongized to [e:] in Attic, and merged with original long [e:] (the "spurious diphthong") from compensatory lengthening or contraction, except before vowels.
In the learned Koine pronunciation of the foreign Romans, was typically an allophone of ? immediately before other vowels, and an allophone of ? everywhere else. Alexandrians treated it as an allophone of ? in all circumstances, a trend that would become standard in Byzantine. | |
Eu eu | [eu?] | [?w] | [ev] | [ev] | See // exceptions further down. | |
? ? | ?i ?i | [?:i?] | [e:] | [i] | [i] | Classically spelt . In Koine, becomes collated simply as ? as they merge. |
?u ?u | [?:u?] | [e:w] | [iv] | [iv] | See // exceptions further down. | |
Oi oi | [oi?] | [y:] | [y] | [i] | Merges together with ? and in Koine, even earlier in Athens. | |
Ou ou | [o:] | [u:] | [u] | [u] | The Archaic Greek diphthong [ou?] was monophthongized to [o:] in Attic, and merged with original long [o:] (the "spurious diphthong") from compensatory lengthening or contraction. [o:] was raised to [u:] early on in Athens, remaining an allophone of [o:] until ? fills that pronunciation. | |
Hui hui ui uï | [y:] | [y:] | [y] | [i] | Merges with ? in Koine, and earlier on in Athens. | |
? ? | ?i ?i | [?:i?] | [o:] | [o] | [o] | Classically spelt . In Koine, becomes collated simply as ? as they merge. |
?u ?u | [?:.y] | [o:.y] | [oy] | [oi] | Ionic Greek diphthong (originally pronounced [?:u?]), separated into two separate vowels, , when loaned into Classical Attic onward. |
Spelling | Rom. | Class. IPA | Koine IPA | Byzan. IPA | Cont. IPA | before ? ? ? ? ? | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
bb | [bb] | [bb] | [] | [(v)v] | |||
ng | [] | [] | [] | [] | [] | In Contemporary pronunciation, in numerous irregular cases, is pronounced [] and [] respectively. Please consult (and preferably cite) a reputable Modern Greek pronunciation source for each word concerned. | |
nk | [?k] | [?k] | [?k] | [] | [] | ||
nkt | [?kt] | [?kt] | [?kt] | [?kt] | |||
gm | [?m] | [?m], [m], [?m] | [?m] | [?m] | |||
nks | [?k?s] | [?k?s] | [?ks] | [?ks] | |||
nkh | [?k?] | [?k?] | [x] | [?x] | [?ç] | In Byzantine pronunciation, this consonant cluster becomes seriously endangered and merges with ? in common speech, later reintroduced under influence from Katharevousa. | |
dd | [dd] | [dd] | [ðð] | [(ð)ð] | |||
kb | [?b] | [?b] | [] | [?v] | |||
kg | [] | [] | [] | [] | [] | ||
kd | [?d] | [?d] | [?ð] | [?ð] | |||
kz | [zd] | [z] | [?z] | [?z] | |||
kth | [k?t?] | [k?t?] | [k?] | [k?] | |||
kk | [kk] | [kk] | [kk] | [k(?)] | [c(?)] | ||
kks | [kk?s] | [kk?s] | [kks] | [k(?)s] | |||
ks | [k?s] | [k?s] | [ks] | [ks] | |||
ksm | [zm] | [zm] | [?zm] | [?zm] | |||
kph | [k?p?] | [k?p?] | [k?] | [kf] | |||
kkh | [kk?] | [kk?] | [kx] | [kx] | [cç] | ||
kps | [k?p?s] | [k?p?s] | [kps] | [kps] | |||
ll | [ll] | [ll] | [ll] | [(l)l] | |||
mb | [mb] | [mb] | [mb] | [?v] | |||
mm | [mm] | [mm] | [mm] | [(m)m] | |||
mp | [mp] | [mp] | [mp] | [mb] | |||
mpt | [mpt] | [mpt] | [mpt] | [mpt] | |||
mph | [mp?] | [mp?] | [] | [?f] | In Byzantine pronunciation, this consonant cluster becomes seriously endangered and merges with ? in common speech, later reintroduced under influence from Katharevousa. | ||
mps | [mp?s] | [mp?s] | [mps] | [mps] | |||
nd | [nd] | [nd] | [nd] | [nð] | |||
nz | [:zd] | [nz] | [ndz] | [nz] | Not viable in Classical Attic, where the spelling is rare, and the ? is silent and audibly lengthens the preceding vowel instead. | ||
nth | [nt?] | [nt?] | [] | [n?] | In Byzantine pronunciation, this consonant cluster becomes seriously endangered and merges with ? in common speech, later reintroduced under influence from Katharevousa. | ||
nn | [nn] | [nn] | [nn] | [(n)n] | |||
ns | [:s] | [ns] | [s] | [ns] | Not viable in Classical Attic, where the spelling is rare, and the ? is silent and audibly lengthens the preceding vowel instead. In Byzantine pronunciation, this consonant cluster becomes seriously endangered and merges with ? again in common speech, later reintroduced under influence from Katharevousa. | ||
nt | [nt] | [nt] | [nt] | [nd] | |||
ntz | [:zd] | [ndz] | [ndz] | [ndz] | Not viable in Classical Attic, where the spelling is rare, and the is silent and audibly lengthens the preceding vowel instead. | ||
nts | [:s] | [nts] | [nts] | [nts] | Not viable in Classical Attic, where the spelling is rare, and the is silent and audibly lengthens the preceding vowel instead. | ||
ksb | [zb] | [zb] | [?z?] | [?zv] | |||
ksg | [z?] | [z?] | [?z?] | [?z?] | [?z?] | ||
ksd | [zd] | [zd] | [?zð] | [?zð] | |||
ksz | [zzd] | [zz] | [?zz] | [?(z)z] | |||
ksm | [zm] | [zm] | [?zm] | [?zm] | |||
pp | [pp] | [pp] | [pp] | [p(?)] | |||
pph | [pp?] | [pp?] | [p?] | [pf] | |||
rrh | [rhr] | [r(h)r] | [rr] | [(r)?] | |||
sb | [zb] | [zb] | [z?] | [zv] | |||
sg | [z?] | [z?] | [z?] | [z?] | [z?] | ||
sd | [zd] | [zd] | [zð] | [zð] | |||
sz | [zzd] | [zz] | [zz] | [(z)z] | |||
sm | [zm] | [zm] | [zm] | [zm] | |||
ss | [ss] | [ss] | [ss] | [(s)s] | |||
tz | [zd] | [dz] | [dz] | [dz] | Not viable in Classical Attic, where the spelling is rare, and is pronounced as ?, not audibly lengthening the preceding vowel as does. | ||
tth | [tt?] | [tt?] | [t?] | [t?] | |||
ts | [s] | [ts] | [ts] | [ts] | Not viable in Classical Attic, where the spelling is rare, and is pronounced as ?, not audibly lengthening the preceding vowel as does. | ||
tt | [tt] | [tt] | [tt] | [t(?)] | |||
psb | [b?zb] | [b?zb] | [bz?] | [bzv] | |||
psg | [b?z?] | [b?z?] | [bz?] | [bz?] | [bz?] | ||
psd | [b?zd] | [b?zd] | [bzð] | [bzð] | |||
psz | [b?zzd] | [b?zz] | [bzz] | [b(z)z] | |||
psm | [b?zm] | [b?zm] | [bzm] | [bzm] |
This table uses as an example, but the same principles apply to and , with ? and ? instead of ?.
Spelling | Rom. | Class. IPA | Koine IPA | Byzan. IPA | Cont. IPA | before ? ? ? ? ? | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
eub | [e?b] | [?wb] | [e] | [e(v)v] | |||
euth | [e?t?] | [t?] | [e] | [ef?] | |||
euk | [e?k] | [k] | [e?k] | [efk] | [efc] | ||
euks | [e?k?s] | [k?s] | [e?ks] | [efks] | |||
eup | [e?p] | [p] | [e?p] | [efp] | |||
eus | [e?s] | [s] | [e?s] | [efs] | |||
? | eusb | [e?zb] | [?wzb] | [e?z?] | [evzv] | ||
? | eusg | [e?z?] | [?wz?] | [e?z?] | [evz?] | [evz?] | |
? | eusd | [e?zd] | [?wzd] | [e?zð] | [evzð] | ||
? | eusm | [e?zm] | [?wzm] | [e?zm] | [evzm] | ||
eut | [e?t] | [t] | [e?t] | [eft] | |||
? | eutz | [e?zd] | [?wdz] | [e?dz] | [evdz] | ||
euph | [e?p?] | [p?] | [e] | [e(f)f] | |||
eukh | [e?k?] | [k?] | [e?x] | [efx] | [efç] | ||
eups | [e?p?s] | [p?s] | [e?ps] | [efps] | |||
eu | [e?] | [] | [e?] | [ef] | Specifically in the word-final position. |
Even today, most words of learned Ancient Greek origin have ? pronounced as [i], always a full vowel in its own syllable. However, where ? is understood to have come from [j], a [j]-derived pronunciation may reasonably apply. [j] does not enter the spoken language until the Byzantine period, and some words (such as ? (Ioúlios)) do not today have retroactive [j] pronunciations. But when [j] does contextually apply, this is how.
Spelling | Rom. | Byzan. IPA | Cont. IPA | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
? ? | i | [j] | [?] | |
gi | [?j] | [?] | ||
ngi | [j] | [] | ||
nki | [?kj] | [] | ||
nkhi | [ ?xj] | [?ç] | ||
thi | [?j] | [?ç] | ||
ki | [kj] | [c] | ||
kgi | [j] | [] | ||
kki | [kkj] | [(c)c] | ||
kkhi | [kxj] | [cç] | ||
li | [lj] | [?] | ||
lli | [llj] | [(?)?] | ||
ni | [nj] | [?] | ||
nni | [nnj] | [(?)?] | ||
ksi | [ksj] | [ksç] | ||
pi | [pj] | [pç] | ||
si | [sj] | [sç] | ||
ti | [tj] | [tç] | ||
phi | [?j] | [fç] | ||
khi | [xj] | [ç] | ||
psi | [psj] | [psç] |